This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. The comparative data suggests that Southeast Asian Austro-Asiatics near the Northeast border of India [33] have either O-M133* or O-M134* subclades (63%), whereas majority of the Austro-Asiatic populations from geographically distant Southeast China and Cambodia [24, 33] have O-M159 subclade (65%), suggesting that the Austro-Asiatic populations of different regions have different subclades of O-M122, which are characteristic of the neighboring non-Austro-Asiatic groups, possibly due to extensive admixture. My father's family is from Finland. 2) nine haplogroups were found among these populations. Since Austro-Asiatic Khasi and Tibeto-Burman Garo live in close proximity in Meghalaya and are known to have frequent marital interactions [11, 12], we further typed all the samples of haplogroup O-M122 from Garo and Khasi populations to see if O-M122 among the Khasis is not due to admixture with the Garo. Yearbook of South Asian Languages and Linguistics. There is also a decreasing gradient of O-M95 frequency as we move from India to Southeast Asia, although this trend is less apparent in the map because 7 of 45 groups from Southeast Asia show O-M95 frequency in the range of 50% to 75%. 25,442 – 132,230). Based on the observation that Austro-Asiatic family has the greatest divergence in their nouns [1] and some other linguistic features (for details, refer to discussion), it is considered to be the oldest of the four linguistic families [1, 2] and consists of three sub-families [3]: (1) Mundari, spoken by a number of tribes inhabiting Chota-Nagpur plateau in Central and Eastern India, (2) Mon-Khmer, spoken by Nicobarese and Shompen tribes from Andaman and Nicobar islands and (3) Khasi-Khmuic (which linguists earlier considered as part of Mon-Khmer) represented by only the Khasi subtribes from Northeast India (Fig. J Archaeol Soc Nippon. Paternal haplogroups are a little more difficult to understand. Ancient India. [5] found high frequency of Haplogroup K-M9 among the Mundari populations and inferred that the Austro-Asiatic populations have migrated from Africa to India via central Asia, which is flawed since this haplogroup is ubiquitously found in Asia and has a substantial presence in the whole of East Asia. Quintana-Murci L, Krausz C, Zerjal T, Sayar SH, Hammer MF, Mehdi SQ, Ayub Q, Qamar R, Mohyuddin A, Radhakrishna U, Jobling MA, Tyler-Smith C, McElreavey K: Y-chromosome lineages trace diffusion of people and languages in southwestern Asia. Sambrook J, Fritsch EF, Maniatis T: Molecular cloning: A laboratory manual. The population-wise distribution of Y-haplogroup frequency and diversity along with haplotype diversity based on 16 Y-STR is furnished in Table 2. For O-M95, Nicobarese samples were excluded. Haplogroup A is the most basal and diverse of all Y-chromosome lineages. Article  Intravenous blood samples were collected from a total of 1222 healthy unrelated individuals belonging to 25 tribal populations out of which 17 are Austro-Asiatic groups and 7 are transitional groups, which are considered to have certain geographical and historical affinities to the former, and also presumed to be formerly speaking Austro-Asiatic languages. However, the FST value turns out to be relatively much smaller (0.045) between Khasi and Southeast Asian Austro-Asiatic populations, suggesting greater genetic affinity between them when compared with the Khasi affinity to Mundari populations (FST = 0.099). Therefore, if indeed Indian Austro-Asiatic populations would have migrated from Southeast Asia, then they should have shown the presence of haplogroup O-M122, and/or the TMRCA estimated for O-M95 among the Mundaris of India should have been much lower (Table 4) than what has been obtained (~65,000 YBP), although given the large Confidence Interval. Basu A, Mukherjee N, Roy S, Sengupta S, Banerjee S, Chakroborty M, Dey B, Roy M, Roy B, Bhattacharyya NP, Roychoudhury S, Majumder PP: Ethnic India: A genomic view, with special reference to peopling and structure. Subsequently, a primarily male-driven and rapid migration of these people to Southeast Asia via Northeast India might have resulted in the total absence of Indian-specific mtDNA haplogroups but presence of 100% East Asian motifs in the Southeast Asian Austro-Asiatics. Rooted maximum-parsimony tree of sub-haplogroups of O-M122 along with their frequencies in Khasi and Garo samples. Similarly, the presence of haplogroup O-M122 in the Austro-Asiatic Khasi with relatively high frequency (29%) could be suspected to be due to gene flow from the neighboring Garo, which is substantiated by a similar frequency and composition of subclades of O-M122 between them (χ2 = 1.597; p = 0.45). Although neither haplogroup O-M175 nor N-LLY22g has been reported from central Asia, many studies have observed reasonably high frequency of haplogroup K-M9* [15, 24, 26] and it is possible that these samples may fall in the haplogroup defined by the binary marker M214, which connects haplogroups 'O' and 'N' [46]. Murthy for his help in editing the manuscript. 22,000 to 25,000 years ago, … Am J Hum Genet. Jobling MA, Tyler-Smith C: The human Y chromosome: an evolutionary marker comes of age. The most obvious: Celebrities can sign up for 23andMe’s Personal Genome Service, just like the rest of us! These parameters suggest a value of ~1000 for the effective population size for this region which is consistent with other studies on East Asia [17, 18]. S2 [see Additional file 1]) nor in the case of O-M133* (results not shown) the Garo and Khasi samples form distinct clades, suggesting a distinct possibility of gene flow between them. 10.1007/s004390100577. Haplogroup R1b: “It is the most frequently occurring paternal lineage in Western Europe, as well as some parts of Russia (e.g. Kumar V, Reddy BM: Status of Austro-Asiatic groups in the peopling of India: An exploratory study based on the available prehistoric, Linguistic and Biological evidences. The Indian subcontinent is presently inhabited by four major linguistic groups, viz. Haplogroup O-M95 might have evolved subsequently as a predominant male lineage along with the Indian-specific female lineages. Two alternative scenarios can be envisaged: 1) it appears that the modern man had probably migrated from Africa to Northeast Asia via Central Asia, where the haplogroups N-LLY22g and O-M175 might have originated [43, 44]. Haplogroup K2b1 (P397/P399) is also known as Haplogroup MS, but has a broader and more complex internal structure. Ramana GV, Su B, Jin L, Singh L, Wang N, Underhill P, Chakraborty R: Y-chromosome SNP haplotypes suggest evidence of gene flow among caste, tribe, and the migrant Siddi populations of Andhra Pradesh, South India. Thus we are also all members of E-L791 as well. Except Khasi (29%) and 1 sample of Korku (2%), none of the Indian Austro-Asiatic populations shows the presence of haplogroup O-M122. PubMed  25,442 – 132,230) and their ancestors carried it further to Southeast Asia via the Northeast Indian corridor. J Biosci. In this case, we used Y-DNA paternal haplogroup information to disprove a genealogical theory. All of which are of course total … Since the DYS389II allele length also contains DYS389I, for all statistical analyses a simple subtraction of DYS389I allele length from that of DYS389II was done to avoid the double-counting variation at DYS389I. Zhivotovsky LA, Underhill PA, Cinnioglu C, Kayser M, Morar B, Kivisild T, Scozzari R, Cruciani F, Destro-Bisol G, Spedini G, Chambers GK, Herrera RJ, Yong KK, Gresham D, Tournev I, Feldman MW, Kalaydjieva L: The effective mutation rate at Y chromosome short tandem repeats, with application to human population-divergence time. It is therefore not surprising that in a recent study [32] all the 12 samples of Shompen from Nicobar islands, like their own linguistic neighbors from the region, the Nicobarese, showed O-M95. Based on the presence of East Asian mtDNA haplogroups, Kumar et al. In this case the person’s paternal haplogroup assignment is O3a3c1*. The group is common among pygmy peoples, as well as hunter-gatherer groups. Recent advances in Indian Archaeology. Hum Genet. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Y-chromosome_DNA_haplogroup 10.1016/S0960-9822(04)00040-5. Furthermore, the haplotype diversity among the Mundari populations is as high as 99%. Terms and Conditions, 10.1038/sj.ejhg.5200708. 1999, 34: 265-275. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. Nature. Kumar and Reddy [4] suggested the possibility of ancestors of Indian Austro-Asiatic tribes having migrated from Africa to India via either Northeast Asia through the Northeast Indian corridor or via Central Asia through its Western Indian corridor. Google Scholar. volume 7, Article number: 47 (2007) Am J Hum Biol. If their haplogroups match, we still can’t be sure that they do share the 4th great-grandfather. The maximum frequency of O-M95 among the 8 Southeast Asian Austro-Asiatic populations is only 35% after excluding 3 populations with small sample size. Prasad BV, Ricker CE, Watkins WS, Dixon ME, Rao BB, Naidu JM, Jorde LB, Bamshad M: Mitochondrial DNA variation in Nicobarese Islanders. The following articles are lists of human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups found in populations around the world. The average frequency of haplogroup O-M95 is highest (52%) followed by H-M69 (26%). Qamar R, Ayub Q, Mohyuddin A, Helgason A, Mazhar K, Mansoor A, Zerjal T, Tyler-Smith C, Mehdi Q: Y-chromosomal DNA variation in Pakistan. Samples with data on some STRs missing were excluded and the remaining 564 chromosomes were analysed. 2002, 129: 10-24. L0a arose 100,000 years later and was carried to the southeastern part of the continent. [16] have used relatively higher mutation rates and only 7 of the 16 loci, we reanalyzed our data based on those 7 loci and the mutation rate used by Kayser et al. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. 2) In view of this, the possibility of ancestors of Austro-Asiatics migrating from central Asia to India through the western Indian corridor cannot be discounted, as it can account for the presence of contrasting patterns of mtDNA in the Indian and Southeast Asian Austro-Asiatics. For alpha, beta and N priors the gamma distribution of (2, 400), (2, 1) and (1, 0.001), respectively, was used [15, 17]. 2004, 431: 302-305. For example, Jimmy Buffett and Warren Buffett have been interested for years in finding out whether their shared surname was an indication of common genetic ancestry. 10.1086/444436. 10.1086/323299. However, since 100% of the Mundari populations and 30% of the Khasi samples show Indian-specific mtDNA whereas all the Southeast Asian Austro-Asiatic populations have East Asian-specific mtDNA only [45], this migration could have been primarily male driven. This may reinforce the suggestion that Mundari and Khasi-Khmuic populations have separated long back and the latter have probably gone to Southeast Asia, via the northeast Indian corridor, as reflected in their geographic distribution (Fig. 10.1101/gr.1413403. Haplogroup R1b (R-M343), also known as Hg1 and Eu18, is a human Y-chromosome haplogroup. Also rare are I2a (1%) and J2 (1%). 2006, 51: 217-26. 10.1016/S0379-0738(02)00195-0. The Changing Socio-economic Profile. Haplogroup A0-T is also known as A-L1085 (and previously as A0'1'2'3'4). [13]. Genome Res. However, none of the groups showed the sublineage O-M88 (Fig. Haplogroup A is the most basal and diverse of all Y-chromosome lineages.The group is found almost exclusively in Africa, with high representation among hunter-gatherer societies in Ethiopia and Sudan. S2 [see Additional file 1]). Nat Genet. 5). 1). Ann Hum Genet. My father's paternal haplogroup is R-M405 (also known as R1b1b2a1a1 and R-U106). We have also typed the following 20 Y-Short Tandem Repeat (STRs) loci: DYS19, DYS385a, DYS385b, DYS388, DYS389I, DYS389b, DYS390, DYS391, DYS392, DYS393, DYS426, DYS437, DYS438, DYS439, DYS447, DYS448, DYS460, H4, YCAIIa and YCAIIb. 10.1086/380911. Am J Hum Genet. This strongly suggests that Austro-Asiatic populations of India are not only linguistically linked to Southeast Asian populations but also genetically associated. We have also included the Tibeto-Burman speaking Garo tribe of Meghalaya since it inhabits the contiguous and/or overlapping geographic locations of the Khasi with which it is known to have marital interaction. 1). Genetics. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. Su B, Jin L, Underhill P, Martinson J, Saha N, McGarvey ST, Shriver MD, Chu J, Oefner P, Chakraborty R, Deka R: Polynesian origins: insights from the Y chromosome. 2002, 70: 1107-1124. Thus the Khasi and Garo show homogeneous distribution of the sub-lineages of O-M122 (χ2 = 1.597; p = 0.45). Haplogroup frequency data on 214 populations (sources given in the legend to Fig. Eur J Hum Genet. Kumar V, Langsiteh BT, Biswas S, Babu JP, Rao TN, Thangaraj K, Reddy AG, Singh L, Reddy BM: Asian and Non-Asian Origins of Mon-Khmer and Mundari Speaking Austro-Asiatic Populations of India. (This followed the publication of: Haplogroup K2b (M1221/P331/PF5911) is also known as Haplogroup MPS. 1999, 16: 37-48. 5 and Table 5). We found only 3 out of the 8 haplogroups defined by the binary markers used in this study (Fig. The results of AMOVA (Table 3), M-J Network (Fig. 2). Austro-Asiatic, Dravidian, Indo-European and Tibeto-Burman that might have entered at different points of time. The foregoing analysis therefore suggests in-situ origin of O-M95 haplogroup, most probably in the ancestors of present day Mundari populations, who might have carried it further to Southeast Asia. However, this marker has not been typed in the Central Asian populations. Ray BC: Tribals of Orissa. We increased the MCMC cycle and found that the Nposterior value and expansion time decrease and increase, respectively, with increase in MCMC cycle and do not stabilize even at 109 cycles. 1989, Cold Spring Harbor, Cold Spring Harbor Press. CAS  Basu et al. Till now this lineage has been reported from the region of Cambodia and Laos only in 1 sample [40] suggesting probably that this lineage is present with a very low frequency and is probably originated and confined to that region. Bandelt H, Forster P, Rohl A: Median joining networks for inferring intraspecific phylogenies. Median-Joining network of Y-STR haplotypes of O-M95 haplogroup. Gadgil M, Joshi N, Manoharan S, Patil S, Prasad UVS: Peopling of India. ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. (DOC 188 KB). 10.1038/sj.ejhg.5200949. Given the overwhelmingly high frequency of O-M95 in the Austro-Asiatic populations it is most likely that this haplogroup has originated among them. 2003, 28: 507-522. As the Nicobarese is the only population sampled from that region, it had an overwhelming influence on the contour, hence excluded from the haplogroup isofrequency map calculation. Underhill PA, Shen P, Lin AA, Jin L, Passarino G, Yang WH, Kauffman E, Bonne-Tamir B, Bertranpetit J, Francalacci P, Ibrahim M, Jenkins T, Kidd JR, Mehdi SQ, Seielstad MT, Wells RS, Piazza A, Davis RW, Feldman MW, Cavalli-Sforza LL, Oefner PJ: Y chromosome sequence variation and the history of human populations. Nat Rev Genet. The results suggest that Shompen like the Nicobarese are also quite distinct from the Mundari (FST = 0.402) and the Khasi (FST = 0.476). Therefore, to trace the origin and historic expansion of Austro-Asiatic groups of India, we analysed Y-chromosome SNP and STR data of the 1222 individuals from 25 Indian populations, covering all the three branches of Austro-Asiatic tribes, viz. 10.1086/318200. how paternal lineages relate to one another, including the observations that all human paternal lineages share a most recent common ancestor approximately 275,000 years ago. Edited by: Shorto HL. Excoffier L, Laval G, Schneider S: An integrated software package for population genetics data analysis. Karafet T, Xu L, Du R, Wang W, Feng S, Wells RS, Redd AJ, Zegura SL, Hammer MF: Paternal population history of East Asia: sources, patterns, and microevolutionary processes. I1 is the second most common with 6%, followed by I2b at 5%, R1a at 2.5%, and E1b1b at 2%. Given the large estimate of TMRCA, our study suggests that the Mundari populations are one of the earliest settlers in the Indian Subcontinent. 2001, 65: 43-62. J Hum Genet. The number of MCMC iterations between each sample varied between runs from 102 to 105, so the overall runs ranged from 106 to 109 MCMC cycles. DNA was extracted from these samples using the protocol of Sambrook [49]. Paternal haplogroups are families of Y chromosomes defined by specific sets of shared genetic variants. The following 20 Y-Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) which are known to detect variations in Asia were screened using direct sequencing (Fig. Open Access However, this haplogroup has negligible presence in North and Central Asia (Fig. YCC (The Y Chromosome Consortium): A nomenclature system for the tree of human Y-chromosomal binary haplogroups. The group is found almost exclusively in Africa, with high representation among hunter-gatherer societies in Ethiopia and Sudan. L0 arose about 150,000 years ago in eastern Africa, where the oldest fossils of anatomically modern humans have been found. See: Poznik. This haplogroup is also found in a relatively high frequency in the Khasi and Nicobarese. Further, the M-J network constructed separately for the sub-haplogroups of O-M122 suggests that neither in the case of O-M134* (Fig. Since SNPs are mutations that occur in individuals, and thus indicate common descent, haplogroups are not mutually exclusive. 2004, 2: 15-42. We are grateful to a large number of anonymous subjects from different parts of India who volunteered to give blood samples. © 2021 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. Therefore, the Mundari populations appear to be one of the earliest source of populations from which the Khasi-Khmuic and Mon-Khmer populations have separated quite early and migrated to and settled in Southeast Asia, while another wave of migration, much later, by the Mon-Khmer people from Southeast Asia through Thailand and coastal southern Burma to Andaman and Nicobar Islands can be inferred from the current spread of Mon-Khmer populations (Fig. Wells RS, Yuldasheva N, Ruzibakiev R, Underhill PA, Evseeva I, Blue-Smith J, Jin L, Su B, Pitchappan R, Shanmugalakshmi S, Balakrishnan K, Read M, Pearson NM, Zerjal T, Webster MT, Zholoshvili I, Jamarjashvili E, Gambarov S, Nikbin B, Dostiev A, Aknazarov O, Zalloua P, Tsoy I, Kitaev M, Mirrakhimov M, Chariev A, Bodmer WF: The Eurasian heartland: a continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity. BMC Evol Biol 7, 47 (2007). Thangaraj K, Singh L, Reddy A, Rao V, Sehgal S, Underhill P, Pierson M, Frame I, Hagelberg E: Genetic affinities of the andaman islanders, a vanishing human population. The spread of haplogroup H-M69 (Fig. 1963, London: SOAS, 140-152. Butler JM, Schoske R, Vallone PM, Kline MC, Redd AJ, Hammer MF: A novel multiplex for simultaneous amplification of 20 Y chromosome STR markers. 10.1007/s004390000259. [6] suggested that the non-Mundari Austro-Asiatic groups of India (Nicobarese and Khasi) have migrated from Southeast Asia. However, and most importantly, haplogroup O-M122, which is considered to be the signature haplogroup of Southeast Asian populations, is absent among the Mundari populations, whereas any inference on the migration of populations from Southeast Asia is principally based on the presence of haplogroup O-M122 [18, 20, 33]. 5), whereas it is equally prevalent in Northeast and Southeast Asia (Table 5). Am J Hum Genet. Roychoudhury S, Roy S, Basu A, Banerjee R, Vishwanathan H, Usha Rani MV, Sil SK, Mitra M, Majumder PP: Genomic structures and population histories of linguistically distinct tribal groups of India. I contacted a few of the other cousins on the list and we found more about each other’s branches. The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics. [10] analysed a large number of Austro-Asiatic populations and suggested distinct origins and migration histories of the Mundari, Khasi-Khmuic and Mon-Khmer populations, the analysis was based only on the mtDNA 9bp del/ins polymorphisms and its characterization. Springer Nature. 2005, 77: 408-419. AMOVA based on Y-STRs suggests high FST value (0.175) between Mundari and Khasi, but relatively much smaller when compared to that between Khasi and Nicobarese (0.289) or between Mundari and Nicobarese (0.442). Analysis of Molecular Variance (AMOVA) was also carried out for both Y-SNP and STR data using ARLEQUIN 3.01 software. Y-chromosome evidence suggests a common paternal heritage of Austro-Asiatic populations. Haplogroup R1a, or haplogroup R-M420, is a human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup which is distributed in a large region in Eurasia, extending from Scandinavia and Central Europe to southern Siberia and South Asia.
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